كيف تتعلم المفردات الانجليزية واستخدامها والمصادرالتي تحتاجها

تعلم مفردات اللغة الانجليزية باسهل الطرق واسرعها 

لديك قائمة طويلة من الكلمات المفيدة والاساسية لتحفظها وتفهمها لدراستك او تعلم اللغة او حتى لمجرد القراءة والتبحر في الكتب الانجليزية من قصص وروايات وباقي العلوم التي تهمك.

الخطوات والنصائح المقترحة:

1- الدراسة مع زميل او مساعد : يفضل ان تجد شخص يساعدك على الحفظ عن طريق اختبارك وتشجيعك على الاستمرار، وهذا ليس شرطا لان بعض الناس ينتج اكثر اذا درس بمفرده.

2- عمل بطاقات لكل كلميتن او ثلاث، مع بعض الامثلة البسيطة من اعدادك وتاليفك وبخط يدك اذا امكن.

3-ربط الامثلة بانشطتك اليومية.

4- لا تضغط على نفسك: كحد اقصى من خمسة الى 15 كلمة في اليوم وليس بالضرورة كل يوم.

5-تذكر ان الكلمات بمفردها لا تعني شيء، لابد ان تربطها بمثال مفيد من حياتك او انشطتك اليومية.

6-مراجعة ما درست يوميا قبل النوم ومحاولت استخدامه في محادثة. زر الموقع التالي لدراسة المحادثة المناسبة لك http://www.englishspeak.com/ar/english-lessons.cfm

7- التدريب التدريب التدريب : وافضل التمارين هو القراءة بصوت مرتفع او مسموع وواضح على الاقل. 

الموقع التالي من افضل المواقع على الاطلاق لقراءة القصص القصيرة والاستماع لها والتدريب عليها من حيث فهمك للقصة والمفرادات التى تضمنتها http://www.rong-chang.com/qa2/.

تعلم 500 كلمة من المفردات الإنجليزية 

مصادر اخرى:

تعليم المفرادت الانجليزية   http://www.languageguide.org/انجليزي

http://english--org.blogspot.com/2009/04/essential-toefl-vocabulary.html

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Happy New Year - Will 13 Be Lucky For You This Year?

Happy New Year 2013

By Susan Leigh

Some people say that luck is all about attitude and application and indeed, the champion golfer, Jack Nicklaus, when congratulated on being so lucky, famously replied ' you know, the more I practice, the luckier I get'. Let's take time to consider how you treat the different areas of your life.
Let's look at some areas where you can focus your attention in order to ensure that 2013 is lucky for you:
Relationships: It's important to allocate time to the important relationships in your life. Often our partners get forgotten about; we trust that close relationships will take care of themselves because they're good. We may forget that they need attention, listening to, consideration, as we devote the bulk of our energies to other, more demanding areas.
Or we may gradually grow to feel resentful about certain aspects of our relationship, suppress those feelings in order to avoid conflict, but then, over time start to move away emotionally and live our own lives. Use New Year as the time to re-focus on improving the important relationships in your life.
Take time to communicate your needs and feelings in an honest, non-accusatory way. Say what bothers/annoys/upsets you, what you want and need in return. Take responsibility for your own feelings and listen respectfully to what's said in reply. Don't interrupt, second-guess or finish their sentences. You'll find that something this simple can really benefit and make you luckier in your relationships.
Work: Commit to undertaking your tasks with enthusiasm and good grace. It doesn't matter what other unhappy colleagues say, think, feel; they're not paying your bills. If you're unhappy at work, consider your options. Would it help to speak to Human Resources, look to retrain, ask for another role? Sometimes having a satisfying interest away from work can play a big part in improving the overall levels of happiness in your life.
You: By becoming the most important person in your life you ensure that your quality of life improves. Looking after your own needs means behaving as an adult, being considerate about others but being clear about what's right for you. Make time to eat well, exercise, look after the things that matter to you. Sometimes the New Year can be a good time to reflect on your image. Use it as an opportunity to decide on a fresh start, if that's what you feel is important.
Learning to be assertive in an appropriate way, perhaps with the use of humour, but with a clear and firm message allows others to appreciate that you are serious about your needs. A shift of emphasis in your tone can significantly change your life for the better.
By following these simple steps you'll be amazed at how lucky you become.
Susan Leigh is a Counsellor and Hypnotherapist who works with stressed individuals to promote confidence and self belief, with couples in crisis to improve communications and understanding and with business clients to support the health and motivation levels of individuals and teams.
For more information see http://www.lifestyletherapy.net

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استعمال أو عدم استعمال العربية في تدريس اللغة الإنجليزية

To Use or Not To Use Arabic in English Language Teaching

Author(s): Rami Hamdallah

Arabic Abstract:

تناقش هذه الورقة إحدى المسائل المثيرة في تدريس اللغة الانجليزية وبالذات استخدام اللغة الأم، وفي هذه الحالة العربية، في تدريس الإنجليزية كلغة أجنبية. في البداية تستعرض الورقة دور اللغة الأولى في بعض الأساليب في تدريس اللغة الإنجليزية، وبعد ذلك تقدم الورقة الأساس المنطقي لاستخدام الأولى في تدريس اللغة الإنجليزية. ويشمل ذلك الدافعية والآثار النفسية وتأثير اللغة الأولى على اكتساب اللغة الثاني,. وتلخص الورقة بعض أدلة تجريبية عن دراسة ميدانية أجراها طشية (1990) والتي أشار فيها أساتذة الإنجليزية من العرب إلى الحد الذي يذهبون به في استخدامهم للغة الأمم "العربية" في تدريس الإنجليزية كلغة أجنبية.

Abstract:
This paper discusses one of the most controversial issues in English language teaching, namely, the use of L1, in this case, Arabic, in teaching English as a foreign language. It first reviews the role of Ll in some major language teaching methods. The paper then presents the rationale for using L1 in English language teaching. This includes motivation, psychological effects, and the influence of L1 on second language acquisition. The paper concludes by presenting empirical evidence from a field study conducted by Tushyeh (1990) in which Arab teachers of English indicate the extent to which they use L 1, Arabic, in teaching English as a foreign language.

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How to Improve Your Vocabulary

By KJ Hutchings

Did you know that, according to the Global Language Monitor, there are 1,013,913 words in the English language? That's a lot of words, and this number will continue to grow as new words are introduced, but do you know how many you use? Most people use far less than they think and many more use just enough words to get by in life. This is a shame, because a good grasp of vocabulary, especially of a language as rich as English, is about more than just communication.

Vocabulary helps us to form our thoughts and ambitions. Words are far more than about making ourselves understood. A limited vocabulary really can affect your life and your self-esteem. In certain situations, such as job interviews, people without a wide vocabulary are often prejudiced against and treated in a dismissive way. So, whether you are at a job interview, writing or speaking, your vocabulary really does matter. This applies whether or not English is your first language. But how do we build up and expand the number of words in our repertoire?
The average native English-speaker knows around 50,000 words, which seems a fraction of the number of words that exist in English. However, 50,000 is obviously a sizeable number and, contrary to what many believe, usage and level of vocabulary is not worse compared to previous generations, despite texting, emailing and television. Recent research has revealed, in fact, that texting can actually improve literacy scores as it encourages people to read and write, and only around ten per cent of words are abbreviated in text messaging.
How you can learn new words

So, if you wish to improve your vocabulary, what is the best way to do this? Well, one thing you should definitely not do is sit down and start reading the dictionary!
The best way to build up your vocabulary is simply to read and write as much as you can. You don't have to just read "high-brow" or academic books either - any sort of reading material will help and the internet is full of text that can improve your wealth of words.
Online newspapers and articles are extremely valuable - there is a plethora of news stories and entries on the internet to pick and choose from. If you come across a word you are unfamiliar with, always look it up in a dictionary.
Another good exercise is to change your synonyms. For example, you can challenge yourself by swapping commonplace words in favour of other, lesser-used adjectives. If you know 50,000 words, you may find that you regularly use rather dull words such as "nice" and "good". Try to use terms that are more exciting and descriptive. There are many online thesauruses that can be very useful in this. And remember that the use of swear words for emphasis is a bad habit that should be broken. Expletives do not indicate an expansive vocabulary, so it is best to find alternatives.
It is no secret that the earlier you improve your vocabulary, the better, but it is never too late to widen the number of words you use. If you have children, it's important to read to them when they are very young. Raising your children to love reading and see it as an enjoyable experience rather than a chore linked to school work is a valuable gift. It will certainly help them become confident and articulate adults.
KJ Hutchings is the owner of KJ Language Services, providing proofreading, editing and writing services to businesses and students, in particular those who use English as a second language. For more information, visit her site at: http://www.kjlanguageservices.com/

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Learn English

By Kevin Branigan

English is the world's preeminent language of politics and trade. Many thousands of international students visit Ireland every year to enroll in top quality English language schools, which offer a wide range of internationally recognised qualifications to suit every academic, personal or professional need.

Ireland has one of the youngest populations in Europe and an impressive tradition of learning, and has become an important destination for international students looking to improve their English language skills. The combination of a regulated high-quality education system, stable economy, beautiful landscape and vibrant cultural scene, means that almost 100,000 international students each year come to Ireland to take English language classes.
There are many course options: from absolute beginners' programmes to classes designed to improve the English language skills of those who already posses a good level of proficiency. Specialised English courses are also available that teach the specific vocabulary of particular professions such as Healthcare and Business. Courses are available for young and old learners, and through group or one-to-one formats.

International students generally learn English for two reasons: on the one hand to gain admittance to a university or college programme at an Irish or other English speaking institution; and on the other, to develop English language skills that will improve career prospects.
Many students come to Ireland and enrol in an English language course prior to an undergraduate or postgraduate programme whilst other students join the Irish school system at Leaving Certificate level, with the aim of entering university afterwards. Irish universities have stringent admission requirements for international students. Candidates must be able to demonstrate in advance that they have the necessary proficiency in English to play a full part in their college programme. Requirements and accepted English language qualifications can vary a good deal from one course to another, so it is highly recommended you contacting the International Office or Admissions Office of the institution in question for further information.
Irish English language schools offer preparation programmes for the major international English language examinations such as the International English Language Testing System (IELTS), the Test of English for International Communication (TOIEC), the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), and the Cambridge ESOL (English for Speakers of Other Languages) examinations; and for two awards recently developed in Ireland: the Test of Interactive English (TIE) and the English Test for Academic and Professional Purposes (ETAPP).
Schools will usually register the student with the examining body automatically, but individual candidates can also apply to take an exam independently.
These qualifications all relate to the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). Valid all over Europe, the CEFR provides a basis for the mutual recognition of language competence, thus facilitating educational and occupational mobility. It is increasingly used in the reform of national curricula and by international consortia for the comparison of language certificates.

Guide to English Language Certification
An important aim of ACELS (see the Certification section) is to develop English language exams in an Irish context, and the TIE and ETAPP examinations are a result of this remit.
TIE is designed for learners of every level of ability to improve their English, and is unique in that the student decides the exam content. Students are required to carry out three tasks in preparation: a short project on a subject of interest to you; read a book of your choice that is suitable to your level of ability; and follow a news story in the media. TIE involves written and spoken tests.
ETAPP was created in 2007 for international students seeking to apply for a course in an Irish third level institution, or those looking to work in a professional role in Ireland. ETAPP is similar in content and objective to long-established international examinations such as IELTS and TOEFL, and comprises four separate tests of Listening, Reading, Writing and Speaking.
IELTS covers all four language skills - reading, writing, listening and speaking, and is accepted by more than 6,000 universities, immigration authorities, and professional bodies around the world, including all higher education institutions in Ireland. The IELTS seeks to test English as it is used in real life, using methods such as speaking modules that are carried out face-to-face with an examiner, and the use of different national and regional accents in testing. In 2008 over one million people took IELTS worldwide. The test is provided up to four times in a month in over 125 countries, and results are made available just 13 calendar days after the test.
TOEFL was first introduced in 1964 and is accepted by institutions in 130 countries worldwide. Almost 20 million students have taken the test, which is available in IBT (Internet-based Test) and PBT (Paper-based Test) formats. The TOEFL tests all four language skills that are important for effective communication: Speaking, Listening, Reading, and Writing.
TOEIC measures the ability of workers to use English in business, commerce and industry. The qualification is also recognised by colleges and governments around the world. Around three million - mainly in Japan, South Korea and Taiwan - take the test every year. The TOEIC is a paper-based, multiple-choice exam that utilises audio, visual and written materials.
University of Cambridge ESOL Certificates are internationally recognised exams that are suitable for anyone seeking to improve their English, apply to a college course, find a good job, or simply travel abroad. Learners can choose from a selection of Cambridge exams that certify English level proficiency at different levels of ability. Around 1.75 million learners in more than 150 countries take Cambridge ESOL examinations each year.

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Learn English

By David Boughton


Learning a language is the same as any other skill; it takes practice, dedication, and the necessary tools to be successful. It is a memory skill, and must be constantly practiced. The trick is to find opportunities to apply your knowledge. Below are some ideas that can help you learn English quickly and effectively.
Being an Active Student

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BUTTERFLY

A butterfly begins its life as a tiny egg, which hatches into a caterpillar. The caterpillar spends most
of its time eating and growing. But its skin does not grow, and so the caterpillar sheds it and grows
a larger one. It repeats this process several times. After the caterpillar reaches its full size, it forms
a protective shell. Inside the shell, an amazing change occurs--the wormlike caterpillar becomes a beautiful butterfly. The shell then breaks open, and the adult butterfly comes out. The insect
expands its wings and soon flies off to find a mate and produce another generation of butterflies. Butterfly caterpillars have chewing mouthparts, which they use to eat leaves and other plant parts.
Some kinds of caterpillars are pests because they damage crops. One of the worst pests is the caterpillar of the cabbage butterfly. It feeds on cabbage, cauliflower, and related plants.
Adult butterflies may have sucking mouthparts. The adults feed mainly on nectar and do no harm.
In fact, they help pollinate flowers. Many flowers must have pollen from other blossoms of the same kind of flower to produce fruit and seeds. When a butterfly stops at a flower to drink nectar, grains
of pollen cling to its body. Some of the pollen grains rub off on the next blossom the butterfly visits. Kinds of butterflies
Scientists group the thousands of species of butterflies into families, according to various physical features the insects have in common. The chief families include (1) skippers; (2) blues, coppers, and
hairstreaks; (3) brush-footed butterflies; (4) sulphurs and whites; (5) metalmarks; (6) satyrs and wood nymphs; (7) swallowtails; (8) milkweed butterflies; and (9) snout butterflies. Each of these families has species in North America.

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HOBBY

Hobby can be any type of activity that people do during their leisure time. Most people take up a hobby for relaxation, pleasure, or friendships, or to develop new interests. A hobby can also lead to additional income.
People of almost any age can enjoy hobbies. A hobby offers a way to relax after periods of hard
work. Hobbies offer broadened areas of interest and ways to pass the time pleasantly. Hobbies can
be important in helping patients recover from physical or mental illness because they provide distractions from the patients' problems. For people who are ill or bedridden, hobbies offer fascinating ways to pass the time. Hobbies can also be an important form of occupational therapy.
In the past, hobbies were largely limited to the wealthy. The average person was too busy earning a living to find time to pursue a hobby. People today generally have more leisure time because of
higher incomes and improvements in working conditions. In addition, most people also live longer and retire from their jobs at an earlier age. To fill their free time, they often develop interests in
hobbies.
Kinds of hobbies
Almost any kind of leisure activity can become a hobby. Most hobbies fall into one of four general

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DAY CARE

Day care is a service in which children or dependent adults are cared for while the person who normally cares for them cannot do so. In the United States and Canada, women have traditionally
cared for their children and for other dependent relatives. But in recent years, more and more
women have begun working outside the home. The number of families with only one parent has also increased. Because of these changes, many families no longer have an adult at home during the
day, and the demand for day care has risen.
Types of day care for children. Many working parents enroll their children in a day-care center. This
is a nonhome site where a group of children receive adult care and supervision. Day-care centers are sometimes called child-care centers. Parents may also place their children in a family day-care home.
In family day care, an adult cares for a small group of children in his or her own home. Usually, this
adult is a mother with her own children. Some parents obtain day care by hiring a sitter or nanny. This is a person who comes to, or lives in, the family home. Other parents rely on relatives to care
for their children during the day.
Day care for school-age children. Some working parents who have school-age children can be home when the children go to school and when they come home. But many parents are unable to do so,
and their children may need day care before and after school.
Before- and after-school day-care programs may be located in the school the child attends. Such day care may also occur in a day-care center, a family day-care home, or the home of a relative or
neighbor. In many areas, day care for school-age children is hard to find or expensive. For this reason, numerous children care for themselves before or after school.
Government support of day care. Most day-care programs in the United States and Canada are run
by individuals or nongovernment organizations. In the United States, only a few programs are fully funded by state governments or federal agencies. In Canada, many programs are partly or fully
funded by the provinces.
Employer-supported day care. In both countries, many employers offer benefits to help working parents care for their children and other dependents. The most common benefits include part-time working hours, flexible schedules, and unpaid leave. Some employers have day-care centers at the
workplace. Others help working parents find and pay for day care outside the workplace.
In the United States, companies with 50 or more employees are required by law to offer at least 12
weeks of unpaid leave to employees with a sick family member, a newborn infant, or a recently
adopted child. In Canada, federal law allows mothers a 15-week, partially paid maternity leave and a
2-week unpaid leave. In addition, either the mother or the father may take an additional 10 weeks of partially paid leave.
Choosing a day-care provider for children. Experts recommend that parents select a day-care provider that is licensed or regulated by the state or province--if the state or province requires
licensing or regulation. Many states and provinces do not regulate or license all types of day-care providers. Experts also recommend that the caregivers have special training in childcare and that there be enough of them to provide each child with individual attention.

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YOGA

Yoga is a term that has two meanings. It is both (1) a school of thought in the Hindu religion and (2)
a system of mental and physical exercise developed by that school. Followers of the yoga school,
who are called yogis or yogins, use yoga exercise to achieve their goal of isolation of the soul from the body and mind. Many non-Hindus in Western countries practice some form of yoga exercise in
hope of improving their health and achieving peace of mind. The word yoga means discipline in
Sanskrit, the classical language of India.
According to the yoga school, every human being consists of prakrti and purusha. Prakrti includes a person's body, mind, and ego (conscious self). Purusha is pure, empty consciousness--the soul. The
yoga school teaches that the soul is completely separate from the rest of a person, but that the person does not realize it. Human beings suffer because they wrongly believe that their soul is
bound to their body and mind. The yoga school, through yoga exercise, aims to give people prajna (understanding) of the meaning of their soul. After a person has obtained this understanding, his or her soul will gain moksha (release) from the samsara (cycle of rebirth) in which Hindus believe.
A yogi, under the guidance of a guru (teacher), goes through eight stages of training on the way to moksha. The yogi learns: (1) disciplined behavior, called yama; (2) positive values (niyama); (3) bodily postures, such as the lotus position (asana); (4) control of breathing (pranayama); (5) control
of the senses (pratyahara); (6) fixing of the mind on a chosen object (dharana); and (7) meditation
(dhyana). The eighth stage, called samadhi, is a state of concentration in which yogis realize that their soul is pure and free, and empty of all content. A yogi who has completed these eight stages
has reached kaivalya. Kaivalya is total isolation of the soul from the body, from all other souls, and from all of nature.
Various forms of yoga have become popular in the United States and Europe. Transcendental
Meditation is a simplified version of the yoga of Hinduism. Bhakti-yoga involves the dedication of all actions and thoughts to a chosen god. Members of the Hare Krishna movement practice bhakti-yoga
by dedicating themselves to the god Krishna. Hatha-yoga, which stresses difficult bodily postures and breathing techniques, has become popular as a method of gaining better health. People also
study hatha-yoga for the unusual control some yogis develop over such functions as metabolism and blood flow.

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METROPOLITAN AREA

Metropolitan area consists of a central city and the developed area that surrounds it. The developed area may be made up of such jurisdictions as cities, boroughs, towns, townships, or villages.
In the United States, a metropolitan area is officially called a Metropolitan Statistical Area. Two or more adjacent metropolitan statistical areas form a Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area. U.S.
metropolitan areas have at least one city or urban area with a population of 50,000 or more, and include the entire county in which the city is located. Adjacent counties may be considered part of
the area, depending on their population density and the number of workers who commute to jobs in
the central county. The term greater applied to a city refers to a metropolitan area, such as Greater
Paris. In England, clusters of small cities around a large city are called metropolitan counties.
In developed countries, most people live in metropolitan areas. In the United States, about 80 percent of the people live in the nation's 268 metropolitan statistical areas. In Canada, about 60 percent of the people reside in 25 metropolitan areas.
The development of suburbs
As cities grow, people move beyond official city boundaries, creating suburbs. This process of suburbanization has been going on since the late 1800's. Several factors contributed to the development of metropolitan areas. Originally, large numbers of people came from rural areas to
central cities in search of employment. This population shift produced overcrowded cities, causing other people to move to outlying areas. The use of automobiles, together with the improvement of
roads and highways, increased tremendously following the end of World War II in 1945. As a result, more and more people have settled in communities outside of central cities since the late 1940's.
By 1970, more people in U.S. metropolitan areas lived in suburbs than in central cities. But by the early 1980's, the rate of suburban growth had decreased for a number of reasons. For example,
many people moved to the suburbs to avoid such problems of big cities as crime, housing shortages, and racial conflicts. However, as the suburbs grew larger, they developed the same problems.
Urban revitalization programs drew some people back to central cities.
People who live in the suburbs of a central city have traditionally considered the city as their workplace because of its commercial and industrial activities. Suburbanites also use the city's cultural, professional, and recreational facilities and services. Since the 1950's, however, many businesses and industries have moved to the suburbs. Today, many suburbanites who once
commuted to and from work in the city work, shop, and enjoy various recreational activities in the suburbs.

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TRANSPORTATION

Transportation is the act of moving people or goods from one place to another. Transportation takes people where they need or want to go, and it brings them the goods they need or want. Without transportation, there could be no trade. Without trade, there could be no towns and cities. Towns
and cities are traditionally the centers of civilization. Therefore, transportation helps make civilization possible.
Throughout most of history, transportation was extremely slow and difficult. In prehistoric times, people traveled mainly on foot. They transported goods on their backs or heads or by dragging them
along the ground. About 5000 B.C., people began to use animals to haul loads. By 3000 B.C., wagons and sailing vessels had been invented. The use of animals, wagons, and sailing vessels enabled people to transport loads farther and more easily than before. But the speed of transportation improved only slightly over the centuries.
Inventors produced the first engine-powered vehicles during the late 1700's and the early 1800's.
This development marked the beginning of a revolution in transportation that has continued to the present. Today, jet airliners carry travelers nearly as fast as, or faster than, the speed of sound. Trains, trucks, and giant cargo ships haul goods to buyers in almost all parts of the world. Automobiles provide convenient transportation for millions of people.
Although engine-powered transportation has benefited people in many ways, it has also created several difficult problems. For example, the engines use great quantities of fuel and so strain the world's energy supplies. Automobiles jam many streets and highways, making travel slow. In addition, their exhaust fumes pollute the air. Such problems are so difficult to solve that
governments have become increasingly involved in transportation.
This article discusses the kinds of transportation, the history of their development, and today's
systems of engine-powered transportation. The article also discusses the transportation industry and current developments in transportation. Vehicles are also used for recreation, warfare, and space exploration.
TRANSPORTATION/Kinds of transportation
There are three main kinds of transportation: (1) land, (2) water, and (3) air. Land transportation depends mainly on wheeled vehicles, especially automobiles, trains, and trucks. Ships and boats are
the most important water vehicles. Air transportation depends almost entirely on airplanes.

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SEWAGE

Sewage is water that contains waste matter produced by human beings. It is also called wastewater.
It contains about a tenth of 1 per cent solid matter. Sewage comes from the sinks and toilets of homes, restaurants, office buildings, and factories. It contains dissolved material that cannot be
seen, plus bits of such solid matter as human waste and ground-up garbage. Some sewage may also contain ground and surface water runoff that occurs after storms or floods. Most sewage also
includes harmful chemicals and disease-producing bacteria.
Most sewage eventually flows into lakes, oceans, rivers, or streams. In the United States, almost all sewage is treated in some way before it goes into the waterways as a semiclear liquid called effluent. Untreated sewage looks and smells foul, and it kills fish and aquatic plants.
Even treated sewage can harm water. For example, most methods used to treat sewage convert
organic wastes into inorganic compounds called nitrates, phosphates, and sulfates. Some of these compounds may serve as food for algae and cause large growths of these simple aquatic organisms. After algae die, they decay. The decaying process uses up oxygen. If too much oxygen is used, fish and plants in the water will die.
A system of pipes that carries sewage from buildings is called a sanitary sewerage system. There are two main types of sanitary sewerage systems: (1) urban sewerage systems and (2) rural sewerage systems.

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SUBWAY

Subway is an electric, underground railway designed to move large numbers of people quickly to
their destinations. Many systems include railways that are elevated or at ground level. Subways are most useful in crowded urban areas, where heavy traffic often slows down travel by bus or car.
Many of the world's largest cities have or are planning extensive subway systems.
London was the first city to have a subway. Today, London has 10 lines that provide quick, cheap transportation to all parts of the city and suburbs. This subway system is often called the tube or the
underground. Some of its subway lines are so far underground that passengers go down on elevators. London's first underground passenger line opened in 1863. It used steam locomotives.
The first deep-level line opened in 1890 and had electric locomotives. All subways since then have
used electricity.
Several large cities in the United States have subway systems. Boston was the first American city to have a subway. It opened a line of 11/2 miles (2.4 kilometers) in 1897. The subway in New York
City is one of the largest in the world. A person can travel from the New Jersey shore, under the city, beneath two rivers, and into Long Island without seeing daylight. The first sections of New York's
subway were opened in 1904. In the United States, subways also operate in Atlanta, Baltimore, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C. In Canada, subways operate in Montreal and Toronto.
There are three types of subways. One is called the open cut. The construction crew tears out the
streets and builds the subways in deep ditches. If two lines are going to cross, the crew digs one roadbed deeper than the other. If the crew lays a pavement or other type of cover over the cut in
the ground, the subway is called a cut and cover subway. The third form of subway, which is called
a tube, is constructed by boring through the earth at the desired depth without disturbing the
surface. This type of construction is for one or two tracks. The tunnels of an open-cut subway have
a rectangular shape. The tunnels of a tube subway are usually circular or semicircular. New York
City's subway is mainly rectangular. Much of the London subway is semicircular.

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ACID RAIN

Acid rain is a term for rain, snow, sleet, or other wet precipitation that is polluted by such acids as sulfuric acid and nitric acid. Acid rain harms thousands of lakes, rivers, and streams worldwide,
killing fish and other wildlife. It also damages buildings, bridges, and statues. High concentrations of acid rain can harm forests and soil.
Acid rain forms when water vapor in the air reacts with certain chemical compounds. These compounds, including sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, come largely from the burning of coal, gasoline, and oil. Most automobiles, factories, and power plants burn such fuels for energy. Regions affected by acid rain include large parts of eastern North America, Scandinavia and central Europe,
and parts of Asia. Since about the 1950's, the problem has increased in rural areas. This has occurred because the use of taller smokestacks in urban areas has enabled the winds to transport pollutants farther from their sources.
Scientists and engineers have developed ways to reduce the acidity of rain. For example, several
kinds of devices remove sulfur and nitrogen compounds from fuels or industrial emissions before they reach the atmosphere. Adding lime to lakes and rivers and their drainage areas temporarily
neutralizes their acidity. But the neutralization may have harmful side effects.
In 1990, the United States Congress amended the Clean Air Act of 1970 to reduce acid rain in the
United States and Canada. The amendments tightened standards for emissions, required fuels that burn more cleanly, and called for power plants to cut their sulfur dioxide emissions.

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PAINTING

Painting is one of the oldest and most important arts. Since prehistoric times, artists have arranged colors on surfaces in ways that express their ideas about people, the world, and religion. The paintings that artists create have great value for humanity. They provide people with both pleasure and information.
Sometimes artists paint primarily for their own enjoyment or self-expression, choosing their own subjects. Artists may also paint for a supporter called a patron, who commissions (orders and pays for) a work. A patron may be a private individual or a ruler who wants to decorate a palace or give the painting as a gift. A patron also may be an organization or institution. Religious groups have
commissioned works of art to help believers worship and understand their faith. Rulers use art to assert their importance. Governments use painting to teach people about the history and ideals of their country.
Even when artists paint primarily for themselves, they want others to see their work and understand and enjoy it. People enjoy paintings for a number of reasons. Many viewers take pleasure in the
artistic qualities of a painting, such as its colors or composition. Some paintings interest viewers because of the way the artists have expressed some emotion, such as fear, grief, happiness, love, hero worship, or faith. Such paintings, in turn, can inspire similar emotions in people looking at
them. Other paintings are enjoyable because they skillfully portray nature or illustrate the daily lives of people who lived long ago.
Paintings can also teach. Some paintings reveal what the artists, their patrons, or their society felt
about important subjects, including death, love, religion, and social justice. Many paintings tell about the history of the period in which they were created. They provide information about the customs,
ideals, and interests of people of past societies. Much of our knowledge about prehistoric and ancient times comes from paintings and other works of art because many early cultures left few or no written records. For example, paintings can tell about such things as the architecture, clothing, recreation, and tools of a particular society or historical period.

What painters paint

It would be very difficult to find a subject that no one has ever tried to paint. Artists paint the things they see around them--people animals, nature, and objects. They also paint dreamlike scenes that exist only in the imagination. An artist can reach back into the past and paint a historical event, a religious story, or a myth. Some artists paint pictures that show no recognizable subject matter at all. Instead, they arrange the paint in some way that expresses feelings or ideas that are important to them.
Since prehistoric times, many artists have painted the subjects that were most important to their societies. For example, religion was particularly important in Europe during the Middle Ages, and most of the paintings created then had religious themes.
All great paintings, regardless of subject matter, share a common feature. They do more than just
reproduce with paint something that exists, existed, or can be imagined. They also express the painter's special view about a subject.

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DRAMA

Drama is an art form that tells a story through the speech and actions of the characters in the story. Most drama is performed by actors who impersonate the characters before an audience in a theater.
Although drama is a form of literature, it differs from other literary forms in the way it is presented. For example, a novel also tells a story involving characters. But a novel tells its story through a
combination of dialogue and narrative, and is complete on the printed page. Most drama achieves its
greatest effect when it is performed. Some critics believe that a written script is not really a play until it has been acted before an audience.
Drama probably gets most of its effectiveness from its ability to give order and clarity to human experience. The basic elements of drama--feelings, desires, conflicts, and reconciliations--are the major ingredients of human experience. In real life, these emotional experiences often seem to be a
jumble of unrelated impressions. In drama, however, the playwright can organize these experiences into understandable patterns. The audience sees the material of real life presented in meaningful
form--with the unimportant omitted and the significant emphasized.
No one knows exactly how or when drama began, but nearly every civilization has had some form of
it. Drama may have developed from ancient religious ceremonies that were performed to win favor from the gods. In these ceremonies, priests often impersonated supernatural beings or animals, and sometimes imitated such actions as hunting. Stories grew up around some rites and lasted after the rites themselves had died out. These myths may have formed the basis of drama.
Another theory suggests that drama originated in choral hymns of praise sung at the tomb of a dead hero. At some point, a speaker separated from the chorus and began to act out deeds in the hero's
life. This acted part gradually became more elaborate, and the role of the chorus diminished. Eventually, the stories were performed as plays, their origins forgotten.
According to a third theory, drama grew out of a natural love of storytelling. Stories told around
campfires re-created victories in the hunt or in battle, or the feats of dead heroes. These stories developed into dramatic retellings of the events.
DRAMA/Forms of drama
Among the many forms of Western drama are (1) tragedy, (2) serious drama, (3) melodrama, and
(4) comedy. Many plays combine forms. Modern dramatists often disregard these categories and create new forms.

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DANCE

Dance is the movement of the human body in a rhythmic way. Dance serves many functions in
human society. It is an art form, a social activity, a type of communication, and a form of recreation. People can dance by themselves, in couples, or in large groups. The dance can be spontaneous or
performed in established movements. It can tell a story, explore an emotion, or serve as a form of
self-expression. Many people dance as a career, but anyone can dance simply by moving in rhythm. Dance is among the oldest human art forms. Dancing extends beyond the human species itself. For example, many animals perform complex dances during courtship.
Dance differs from other kinds of rhythmic movement, such as dribbling a basketball, because in
dance the movement itself is the goal of the activity. Music usually accompanies dance, providing the rhythm, tempo, and mood for the movements.
In modern societies, many people enjoy dancing simply for entertainment. Each generation creates
new dances as an expression of its own sense of life and fun. For example, rock dancing arose about
1960 with the popularity of rock music. This type of dance was created primarily by and for young people. Rock dances such as the twist did not require partners to touch each other while they
danced. The dancing was free-spirited and individual, allowing each dancer to create his or her own steps spontaneously. Rock dancing stressed pure emotion underscored by the strong beat of the
music.
Why people dance
Religious reasons. For thousands of years, human beings have danced for religious reasons. Many religions involve some form of dance. Many religious dances are forms of prayer. Believers dance as
they pray for rain, for the fertility of crops, and for success in war or in hunting. Such dances often imitate or pantomime some movement. For example, dancers may imitate the movement of the animal to be hunted, or a hunter's actions in stalking it. They may wear elaborate costumes and
masks or makeup to depict deities or animals.
Religious dance also may attempt to create a state of ecstasy (intense joy) or trance in the
worshiper. Dance may also be used as one part of a religious occasion or ritual. One example is the dancing of Jews at the festival of Simhat Torah. Another example is the dancing and whirling of members of a Muslim religious order called dervishes. Dancing was a formal element in Christian worship until the A.D. 1100's, when religious leaders began to prohibit it because they believed it was too worldly an activity. However, spontaneous dance has become a common element of worship
among some Protestant denominations.
Social reasons. Dancing plays an important role in social functions. All societies have characteristic forms of dance. Such dancing may take place at ceremonial occasions or at informal gatherings.
Like traditional foods and costumes, dance helps members of a nation or ethnic group recognize their connection to one another and to their ancestors. By dancing together, members of a group express
their sense of common identity or belonging.

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COOKING

Cooking is the preparation of food for eating by applying heat. Cooking makes food more appetizing and easier to digest. It also kills harmful bacteria that could otherwise cause illness. Many people
enjoy cooking. Skillful cooks take great care in preparing delicious, attractive, and nutritious meals. Some people use the term cooking to refer to preparation of all foods, not just those that are heated. Most people can prepare lettuce salad or other foods without written directions. But many foods, including cakes and sauces, turn out well consistently if prepared according to a recipe. Many
cookbooks with a wide variety of recipes are available. Recipes also appear on food packages and in many magazines and newspapers.
This article discusses basic principles of planning meals and preparing food. Some cookbooks give general tips on both topics in addition to providing recipes. A beginner should first try simple recipes
and meals and then go on to more difficult ones. Planning meals
Meal planning involves several factors. The food should be nutritious and appealing, and its cost should be within a family's budget. A cook also must consider the time required to prepare certain meals.
Planning nutritious meals requires a basic knowledge of the body's nutritional requirements and the nutrients in different foods. Nutritionists divide foods into basic groups and recommend a certain
number of daily servings from each group. The NUTRITION article describes these food groups and lists the recommended number of servings. Meals planned according to these guidelines provide the nutrients a person needs without adding extra calories or dietary fat.
Planning appealing meals. An appealing meal includes foods that have contrasting colors, shapes, textures, flavors, and temperatures. The selection of vegetables and fruits can be especially important in adding color to a meal. For example, a meal of sliced turkey, cauliflower, mashed potatoes, white bread, and milk would look unappetizing. A green vegetable and an orange one, instead of cauliflower and potatoes, would make the meal more colorful and appealing. Cutting
carrots, beets, and other vegetables into contrasting shapes can also help create variety. The textures of solid foods range from soft to firm, and a meal should include foods that vary in
chewiness. Most meals also should include at least one hot food and one cold dish. In addition, a person should serve foods that differ in flavor.
Foods called garnishes can make a dish more attractive. They usually are arranged around the food after it has been cooked. Common garnishes include parsley sprigs, tomato slices, and lemon
wedges.

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IMAGINATION

Imagination is the capacity to consider objects or events in their absence or as they might be. Imagination may refer to many things, such as fantasy, ingenuity, daydreaming, and make-believe.
But it often involves the use of mental imagery, which is the ability to call to mind the sensations of sights, sounds, tastes, smells, and touches that have been experienced.
Through mental imagery, people can also create mental sensations of situations or conditions they
have not actually experienced. Imagination plays an important role in creativity, including the formation of abstract ideas. Mental images can substitute for the real thing, allowing a person to plan how to paint a picture, compose a song, and so on.
Mental imagery is produced by the same parts of the brain used in actual perception. This fact
sometimes leads people to mistake objects in their mental images for real objects. Brain damage can also disrupt mental imagery and perception in the same ways.
People differ widely in their abilities and tendencies to use different aspects of imagery. For example, some people are better than others at moving objects in images. They can visualize an N changing
into a Z when rotated to a certain point. In addition, some people are better than others at picturing more objects in their images or at creating new objects in images.
Imagination plays an important role in a child's life. Children tend to use imagery in thinking more than adults do. But children have more difficulty than adults in using imagery effectively. This difficulty contributes to the problems that children experience in reasoning about objects and ideas.

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